In this topic, you studied three types of learning. Classical conditioning involves learning that happens automatically, when two things are paired together several times. Conversely, operant conditioning is learning by consequences, which Skinner studied by focusing on reinforcement. Observational learning is acquired by watching others perform or model certain actions.

Psychologists believe that memory is processed in three steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing information into the brain, storage refers to the duration and storing of memories, and retrieval refers to how information is “pulled” from memory. Similarly, thinking refers to mental activity that occurs in the brain when information is being organized, communicated, or processed. By studying thinking, researchers can learn more about how individuals form concepts, solve problems, or make cognitive errors. Furthermore, while intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler attempt to measure one’s abilities, disagreement exists about what defines intelligence. An IQ of one hundred is considered average.